Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion and secondary batteries: A comparative analysis on environmental impacts and graphite recycling

The production of electric vehicles as an alternative to fossil–fuel–based transportation necessitates a comprehensive understanding of the environmental impacts associated with rechargeable batteries. This study performs a life cycle assessment (LCA) to compare the environmental impacts of four emerging and commercial battery types including lithium–sulfur (Li–S), magnesium–sulfur (Mg–S), sodium-ion (Na-ion), and nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) with a particular focus on their production and recycling phases. Key ecological indicators such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, land use, nuclear energy demand, and a broad range of impact categories were analyzed. Results show that Mg–S batteries demonstrate the lowest environmental footprint and highest robustness across multiple impact categories, whereas NiMH batteries contribute the most to GHG emissions and nuclear energy demand. A comparative analysis of cathode material systems for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) further emphasizes the disproportionate environmental burden posed by cathode production. The findings also suggest that the material innovation, particularly in the cathode and anode design along with optimization of recycling processes, is essential for reducing the ecological footprint of battery technologies and achieving low-carbon mobility goals.