Toward a standardized and comparable life cycle dataset system for steel production in China

The transparency, standardization, and comparability of LCA data remain global challenges for quantifying and reducing the carbon footprint of the steel industry. To address these issues, the transparent and standardized Tiangong Steel Datasets provide development framework for China's steel sector. The datasets were compiled through a systematic process involving comprehensive literature review, snowball sampling, expert validation, and data extraction. They provide process-level information on energy use, material inputs, and emissions across three major steelmaking routes: BF-BOF, DRI-EAF, and Scrap-EAF. Each dataset includes explicit definitions of system boundary, functional unit, allocation rule, and temporal-spatial coverage, ensuring methodological consistency. Statistical and correlation analyses reveal the relationships between raw material consumption and CO₂ emissions, highlighting key emission drivers and efficiency gaps among production routes. By unifying modeling boundaries and calculation methods, the datasets improve the credibility and international comparability of product carbon footprint, support integration with carbon trading and export compliance, and provide a foundation for China's low-carbon steel transition.