Passivation of positively charged cationic defects in perovskite with nitrogen-donor crown ether enabling efficient perovskite solar cells

Positively charged cationic defects are the main source of defects in metal-halide perovskite solar cells. They determine the quasi-Fermi level of electrons under illumination and contribute to non-radiative recombination loss, causing an open-circuit voltage deficit. In addition, they act as ion migration pathways for halide hopping, thus deteriorating long-term stability. Herein, a nitrogen-donor crown ether as a positive defect passivator is developed, which demonstrates a soft Lewis base nature, a large donor number and a higher formation constant with positively charged cationic defects. Density functional theory calculation indicates that the electron-donating nitrogen atom dramatically increases the electron density of oxygen atoms, leading to a strong affinity with positively charged cationic defects (Pb²⁺ and Cs⁺). The electron trap density in perovskite is significantly reduced by 27 %, resulting in an increased build-in potential. By adding a small amount of nitrogen-donor crown ether to the precursor solution, the perovskite solar cells achieve an efficiency of 24.07 % with an open-circuit voltage of 1.174 V and a fill factor of 82.15 %. Moreover, the unencapsulated perovskite solar cells show a T₈₀ lifetime of 510 h under continuous operation (1 sun equivalent illumination, maximum power point tracking condition, dry N₂ atmosphere), and enhanced moisture and heat stability.