Mitigating lead toxicity towards safer commercialization of perovskite solar cells

Metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as transformative photovoltaic technologies due to their high efficiency and low cost. However, the presence of lead raises environmental and health concerns, posing a barrier to commercialization. This Review quantifies the toxicity risks associated with lead in PSCs and underscores the need for effective mitigation strategies. We discuss the long-term effectiveness of lead isolation and immobilization approaches by introducing quantitative metrics, specifically the sequestration efficiency and lifetime. We further evaluate the practical feasibility of these strategies in terms of device efficiency, scalability and cost. In addition, we explore sustainable lead sources and advocate for the leveraging of lead–acid battery recycling as a transitional supply, ultimately aiming to establish a closed-loop lead recycling system for PSCs. By integrating lead-sequestration strategies, establishing recycling infrastructure for end-of-life perovskite photovoltaics and advancing producer responsibility policies, this Review provides a roadmap towards the safer and more sustainable commercialization of lead-based perovskite photovoltaics.