Lithium-Ion Batteries Participating in Frequency Regulation through Low-Destructive Bidirectional Pulsed Current Operation

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have enormous potential to participate in the frequency regulation (FR) of future high-penetration renewable energy grids. This study reports the development of non-destructive LIBs that supply FR service through controllable input–output power. The low-destructive operation does not impair the cells and even provides a fast solid inter-electrolyte phase for the LIB to ensure rapid diffusion of Li⁺ and suppress Li deposition. Cracks of the cathode and Li deposition on the anode appear to varying degrees when different destructive operations are adopted. The extraordinary capability of such non-destructive operations for LIBs is demonstrated in historical dynamic signals from the regulation market of Pennsylvania-New Jersey-Maryland, where the matching degree achieved 86.7% of annual FR demand. This study guides the design criteria of low-destructive operations of LIBs for future grid and contributes to the energy greening and electrification through a vehicle-to-grid solution.