Electromagnetic effects model and design of energy systems for lithium batteries with gradient structure in sustainable energy electric vehicles

Lithium batteries with electromagnetic gradient structure have special macroscopic equivalent performance. In this Review, methods to characterize this macroscopic property have been proposed in both theory and practice. The goal is to address the heterogeneity of the energy system as well as the electromagnetic effects caused by microstructure. In this Review, electromagnetic effect model and design theory of vehicle energy systems, gradient structure are introduced. The mechanism of heterogeneity and the electromagnetic effect are highlighted. Methods and experimental gradient structure characterization techniques under electric, magnetic, and temperature fields are reviewed, with emphasis being placed on gradient structure multi-field characterization, test, and evaluation. The comprehensive evaluation of energy system architecture and gradient structure design methodology is to support the application of electromagnetic lithium battery use in electric vehicles.