Brief review of external physical field-boosted low-temperature electrodeposition for metals and alloys

Electrochemical metallurgy at low temperature (<473 K) shows promise for the extraction and refinement of metals and alloys in a green and sustainable manner. However, the kinetics of the electrodeposition process is generally slow at low temperature, resulting in large overpotential and low current efficiency. Thus, the application of external physical fields has emerged as an effective strategy for improving the mass and charge transfer processes during electrochemical reactions. This review highlights the challenges associated with low-temperature electrochemical processes and briefly discusses recent achievements in optimizing electrodeposition processes through the use of external physical fields. The regulating effects on the optimization of the electrodeposition process and the strategies for selecting various external physical fields, including magnetic, supergravity, and ultrasonic fields are summarized from the perspectives of equipment and mechanisms. Finally, advanced methods for in-situ characterization of external physical field-assisted electrodeposition processes are reviewed to gain a deeper understanding of metallic electrodeposition. An in-depth exploration of the mechanism by which external physical fields affect the electrode process is essential for enhancing the efficiency of metal extraction at low temperatures.